The Natyashastra and Its Origins
The Natyashastra, also known as “The Treatise on Drama,” stands as the oldest surviving text on Indian dramatic theory and practice. The Natyashastra of Bharata (redacted into its present composite form by 200 CE), mentions “instruction” (hitopadesa) and “entertainment” (krida, sukha, visranti) as the purposes of drama. Unlike the four traditional Vedas, the Natyashastra was designed to be accessible to all members of society, including women and lower castes (Sudras). This inclusivity reflects its broader purpose of instructing through pleasure and representing both the positive and negative aspects of the world.
Purpose and Goals of Indian Drama
Indian drama, as outlined in the Natyashastra, serves multiple purposes. It aims to represent the ways of the world, provide good advice, and bring enlightenment through entertainment. Additionally, it seeks to bring peace of mind to those troubled by worldly problems. Rather than focusing on specific individuals or situations, Indian drama presents a generalized view of the world and human actions. The chief goal of this dramatic tradition is to produce rasa, the aesthetic emotion that forms the core of Indian aesthetic theory.
The Natyashastra also acknowledges the four main goals (purusartha) of brahminical culture: Dharma (duty/righteousness), Artha (wealth/possessions), Kama (pleasure/desire/material pursuit), and Moksha (liberation). These goals are integrated into the purposes and themes of dramatic works, meant to provide a holistic approach to life and art.
Elements of Sanskrit Drama
Sanskrit drama is a multifaceted art form, blending various elements to create a rich theatrical experience. It combines verse and prose, dance, music, and spectacle. The Natyashastra uniquely treats poetry, music, and dance as one unified art form, thereby emphasizing their interdependence in creating a powerful dramatic effect. To build mood and evoke rasa. Sanskrit drama employs a wide range of elements including words, mime and gesture, music and dance, as well as costume and jewelry. This comprehensive approach to theater allows for a deep and immersive experience for the audience.
Plot Structure in Classical Indian Drama
Indian dramaturgical theory outlines an idealized plot structure that progresses through five “transitions” or “junctions” (sandhi). This structure begins with the Origin (mukha), which states the “seed” (bija) of the plot in outline. It then moves through the Incident (pratimukha), where the seed develops through alternating episodes of gain and loss. The Germ (garbha) follows, where the likelihood of gain outweighs the possibility of loss. This leads to the Crisis (vimarsa), where hope seems lost as the likelihood of loss outweighs gain. Finally, the structure concludes with the Completion (nirvahana), where all narrative currents converge towards the final consummation.
This sophisticated plot structure creates a narrative arc that moves from an initial idyll through various reversals and complications, ultimately arriving at a new, ambivalent quasi-idyll state. This progression allows for complex storytelling and character development, engaging the audience on multiple levels throughout the performance.
Theory of Rasa (Aesthetic Sentiment)
At the heart of Indian aesthetic theory lies the concept of rasa, representing the distilled, depersonalized emotion evoked by art. The theory of rasa involves several key components: vibhava (determinant emotional states), anubhava (consequent emotional states), vyabhicaribhava (transient emotional states), and sthayibhava (permanent emotional states). These elements work in concert to create a profound emotional experience for the audience.
The process of experiencing rasa is complex and paradoxical. It involves deep immersion in the performance, creating an emotional state detached from specific characters or actors. While evoked by the play, rasa is not directly caused by it, as it depends heavily on the spectator’s receptivity and circumstances. The Rasasutra in the Natyashastra succinctly states: “Rasa is evoked by the conjunction of determinants, consequents and transient emotional states.”
In practical terms, this theory manifests in drama through various determinants and consequents. Objective determinants, for example, for a play based on Ramayana, might include characters like Rama, Sita, and Ravana, while excitant determinants could be elements such as the season, garlands, or makeup. Bodily consequents refer to gestures and stances, verbal consequents to intonations revealing emotions like sarcasm, and involuntary consequents to spontaneous reactions like tears and tremors. Accessory consequents might include props like armor and helmets. All these elements work together to create the conditions for rasa to emerge.
Foundational Emotions and Aesthetic Sentiments
Indian aesthetic theory identifies eight (sometimes nine) foundational emotions (sthayi bhava) that can be transformed into corresponding aesthetic sentiments. These pairings include passion (rati) transforming into the erotic (shringara) sentiment, energy (utsaha) into the heroic (virya), revulsion (jugupsa) into disgust (bibhatsa), anger (krodha) into the wrathful (raudra), fun (hasa) into the comic (hasya), wonder (smaya) into the amazing (adbhuta), fear (bhaya) into the fearful (bhayanaka), and grief (soka) into the compassionate (karuna). Some theorists also include a ninth pairing of world-weariness (sama/nirveda) transforming into the quietist (santa) sentiment, though this addition is debated.
This transformation of foundational emotions into aesthetic sentiments is considered a “doctrine of transformation” (parinama vada). It represents the process by which raw human emotions are refined and elevated through artistic expression, allowing the audience to experience these feelings in a more universal and transcendent way.
The Erotic Sentiment (Shringara)
Among the various aesthetic sentiments, the erotic (shringara) is often considered the most important and challenging to portray effectively. It is typically divided into two main categories: love-in-union (sambhoga) and love-in-separation (vipralambha). The complexity of this sentiment is further illustrated by the subdivision of love-in-separation into ten developmental stages: longing (abhilasa), pondering (cintana), remembrance (smrti), praising (guna kirtana), agitation (udvega), babbling (pralapa), madness (unmada), fever (sam jvara), torpor (jadata), and ultimately death (marana).
This detailed exploration of the stages of love demonstrates the depth and nuance with which Indian dramatic theory approaches human emotions. It provides a framework for artists to portray the full spectrum of romantic experience, from the initial stirrings of attraction to the deepest pangs of separation.
Conclusion
The elaborate system of aesthetic theory in Indian dramaturgy demonstrates a sophisticated understanding of human emotions and their artistic representation. It provides a comprehensive framework for creating, performing, and appreciating dramatic works that aim to evoke profound emotional experiences in the audience. This theory has not only influenced drama but has also had a significant impact on other forms of Indian classical arts, including poetry, dance, and music.
By offering a structured approach to understanding and evoking emotions through art, Indian dramatic theory as enshrined in the Natyashastra has contributed significantly to the development of a rich and enduring artistic tradition. It continues to inform and inspire artists and scholars, and offers insights into the nature of human emotion and the power of artistic expression to transform and elevate the human experience.
